Triglycerides which are also called neutral fats are commonly known as fats when solid or oils when liquid. Triglycerides are made up of two types of building blocks, fatty acids and glycerol, in a ratio of 3:1 of fatty acids to glycerol. Triglycerides are large molecules and ingested fats and oils must be broken down into their building blocks before they can be absorbed. Oils or fats do not mix with water because polar and non polar molecules do not interact. Triglycerides provide the body’s most efficient and compact form of stored energy, and when they are oxidized, they yield large amounts of energy. Triglycerides are found mainly beneath the skin, where they insulate the deeper body tissues from heat loss and protect them from trauma.

Fatty acid chains with only a single covalent bond between carbon atoms are referred to as saturated. Their fatty acid chains are straight and, at room temperature, the molecules  of a saturated fat are packed closely together, forming a solid. Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms are said to be unsaturated  (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated). The double bonds cause the fatty acid chains to kink so that they cannot be packed closely enough to solidify. Hence, triglycerides with short fatty acid chains or unsaturated fatty acids are oils (liquid at room temperature) and are typical of plant lipids. Examples include olive and peanut oils (rich in monounsaturated fats) and corn, soybean, and safflower oils, which contain a high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Longer fatty acid chains and more saturated fatty acids are common in animal fats such as butter fat and the fat of meats, which are solid at room temperature.

Trans fats which are common in many margarines and baked products, are oils that have been solidified by the addition of hydrogen atoms at the sites of double carbon bonds. Trans fats are very harmful to body cells and should be avoided altogether in the animals diet. Trans fats have been linked to atherosclerosis and are considered by many scientists to be carcinogenic.

Phospholipids are modified triglycerides with the addition of a phosphorous-containing group. Phospholipids are the chief material for building cellular membranes.

Steroids are basically flat molecules made of four interlocking hydrocarbon rings. Steroids are very important molecules which the animal gets from ingestion of  animal products such as eggs, meat and cheese. The steroids cholesterol, bile salts, Vitamin D, sex hormones, and adrenocortical hormones are extremely important to the animals health. Cholesterol is the structural basis for manufacture of all body steroids and is a component of the cells membrane. Bile salts are manufactured by the liver from the breakdown of cholesterol and are stored in the gall bladder for release into the small intestine where they aid fat digestion and absorption by helping to emulsify fats into smaller absorbable molecules.Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin produced in the skin on exposure to UV radiation and is necessary for normal bone growth and function. The steroid sex hormones estrogen, progesterone and testosterone are necessary for reproductive function. Adrenocortical hormones like cortisol is a metabolic hormone necessary for maintaining normal blood glucose levels. Aldosterone another adrenocortical hormone helps to regulate salt and water balance in the body by targeting the kidneys.

Other lipid substances include the fat soluble Vitamins A, D, E, and K. Vitamin A is ingested in orange-pigmented vegetables and fruits and are converted in the retina to retinol and are a part of the photoreceptor pigments involved in vision. Vitamin E is ingested in plant products such as wheat germ and green leafy vegetables and protects the cell membrane against oxidative damage. Vitamin K is made by bacterial synthesis in the intestine and is also found in green leafy vegetables and it regulates the formation of clotting factors in the blood.

Eicosanoids (prostaglandins, leukotrienes and thromboxanes) are a group of molecules that are derived from fatty acids found in all cell membranes. Prostaglandins stimulate uterine contractions, regulate blood pressure, control gastrointestinal tract motility and secretory activity. Both prostaglandins and leukotrienes are involved in inflammation. Thromboxanes are powerful vasoconstrictors.

Lipoproteins are lipoid and protein based substances that transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the blood stream. The major lipoproteins are high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and low-density lipoproteins (LDL). HDL is healthy for the body and high levels of LDL is lousy for the body.

Essential Fatty Acids (EFA) are fatty acids that the animal can not synthesize themselves and so it is essential for the animal to get these in its diet. Essential fatty acids in the dog and cat include linolenic acid, linoleic acid and arachidonic acid. Adult dogs are able to synthesize linolenic and arachidonic acid from linoleic acid.  Adult cats, however, can synthesize linolenic acid but not arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is only found in fat sources from animals and for this reason cats are obligate carnivores.

Deficiencies in lipids can cause a dry coat and scaly skin. A reduction of lipids on the skin can cause pyoderma. Wound healing can also be impaired due to the requirement of phosopholipids within the cells membranes. If there is a chronic deficiency of lipids, especially of the EFA, symptoms of alopecia, edema and moist dermatitis can occur. Severe deficiencies can result in emaciation of the animal.  Deficiencies of  Vitamin A can cause night blindness, infertility, crusting lesions of the nares, seborrhoeic coat conditions, and increased susceptibility to microbial infections. Deficiencies of Vitamin D can cause rickets in the young and osteomalacia in adults. Deficiencies of Vitamin E can cause pancreatitis, skeletal muscle dystrophy, reproductive failure and impairment of the immune response in dogs. Deficiencies of Vitamin K is rare due to its synthesis in the intestine.

In the next post on animal nutrition we will wrap up the subject of nutrients by covering water soluble vitamins and minerals.

The focus of this blog will be on the use of water in its three forms; solid, liquid and gas and the various applications of these three forms to treat specific pathologies that present themselves in the animal. Since this will be an ongoing topic I will start with basics. Animals have been treating themselves with hydrotherapy since the beginning of their existence. In fact without water there would be no life and dehydration in any life form leads to disease. The water hole has been the site of many a cross species truce when water supplies are low. Animals have been bathing for health forever and many roll in the mud after. Drinking water at various temperatures with various ingredients added is a form of hydrotherapy. Water is the closest thing we know to a universal solvent. Whether we are using water to treat internal conditions through infusions or applying water to the surface of the body with various degrees of temperature, mechanical pressure or friction we will cause a physiological response to the treatment and this is where we will start.

When we apply a heated pack on the surface of the body the body responds to the heat by initiating vasodilation thereby moving more blood to the area to pick up the heat. Blood is approximately 82% water and one of the major qualities of water is it’s high capacity of heat which means it has the ability to absorb and release heat. Blood coming to the surface picks up the excess heat that is being applied to the surface of the skin and redistributes the heat evenly throughout the blood stream. When we apply cold packs to the body the blood comes to the surface to heat up the area under the pack. There are primary responses and secondary responses in the systems of the body as we apply hot or cold packs to the body. We can apply hot and cold packs at varying degrees of temperature and varying lengths of time duration. In general, the higher or lower degrees of temperature that are applied to the body have a more powerful physiological effect and the shorter the time the pack is on, the more powerful the response will be. So duration of treatment and degree of temperature are critical in getting a desired therapeutic effect.

There are three phases of reactions that the body goes through with the application of hot or cold to its surface: circulatory, nervous and metabolic. The nervous system reacts to temperature changes at the surface of the body through its thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors in the integumentary system sense changes in temperature at the bodies surface and relay this signal through the spinal cord to the area of the brain that regulates the bodies temperature. This regulatory center then responds to any temperature changes that vary from desired homeostatic norms by releasing chemicals or by triggering a motor neuron response to the stimulus. For example if cold is applied to the surface of the body a thermoreceptor under the skin in the area that the cold is applied sends a signal to the lateral spinothalmic pathway of the spinal cord which then sends this signal to the somatosensory cortex of the brain for interpretation. Once this signal is interpreted by the somatosensory cortex it then sends a signal down a motor tract to the errector pilli muscles that cause them to contract and lift the hair up on end to provide loft to the hair coat to trap heat close to the body. Another motor signal will be received by muscle cells to cause them to contract and shivering will start to take place. The shivering will generate heat as the muscle cells break down glucose into ATP for muscle energy. Simultaneously the autonomic nervous system will cause its sympathetic branch to stimulate contraction of muscles around the blood vessels to constrict the blood vessels to prevent the cold from reaching the more vital organs of the body. This last response would be a circulatory system response to the cold. Muscles contracting to promote heat build up in the area would be a metabolic response to the cold. The stronger the cold the stronger the response will be.

The size of the area of applications must be considered as well. Whole body applications of hot or cold will have different effects on the systems of the body. So we need to understand local responses to hot and cold and whole body system responses to hot or cold applications.

Definitions of water temperature are as follows:

Possibly injurious temperature is 125 degrees F. or 50 degrees C. In cases of diabetes even 110 degrees F. can be injurious.

Painfully hot temperature is between 110-120 F or 42.8-46 C

Very hot temperature is between 104-110 F or 40-42.8 C

Hot temperature is between 100-104 F or 38-40 C

Neutral temperature is between 94-97 F or 34.4-37 C

Warm temperature is between 92-100 F or 34-38 C

Tepid temperature is between 80-92 F or 27-34 C

Cool temperature is between 70-80 F or 21-27 C

Cold temperature is between 55-70 F or 13-21 C

Very Cold temperature is between 32-55 F or 0-13 C

In the next hydrotherapy for animal blog I will talk about applications of cold to very cold therapy and the physiological effects of these applications.

Now that we know a little of the history of our intercession with domesticated animals we can start with the basic science of nutrition. Nutrition is defined as the process of providing or obtaining the food necessary for health and growth. Nutrients are defined as, a substance that provides nourishment essential for the growth and maintenance of life. Nutrients provide the energy that all living beings need to produce the work of the cells and provide the building blocks that the body needs to maintain its structure. The source of all nutrients that the body needs come from one place, the earth. The energy that the nutrients contain to do work comes from one place, the sun. Since we can not eat the sun to get energy to do work we must have an intermediary to gather and store this energy in a form that can be transformed into an energy source that we can use as living animals and that intermediary is plants. Plants gather the energy of the sun and utilize it for their own growth and function and store the remainder as chlorophyll and oils. Plants gather elements of the earth up through their roots along with water and produce oxygen that other living beings need to spark the metabolic processes of the body. Livings beings then consume the plant material and break down the plant into an assimilable size so that we can use the energy and building blocks that were provided by the sun and earth or they eat the animal that has eaten the plant.  Each living being has specific nutritional needs based upon the structural, environmental and work requirement of that particular life form. Since we are looking at only three specific animals we will need to know what the requirements are for each of these animals. Each type of animal is unique and has its own nutritional requirement as a species. Within each species there are also specific nutritional requirements based on size, genetics, environment, age, work habits and pathological imbalances. Each animal is a bio-individual so when we look at the nutritional requirements for the animal we must take all of these factors under consideration if we are to make wise choices in what we feed to our animal companions. Currently most of the information we have about animal nutrition for dogs, cats and horses are provided by the AAFCO. The Association of American Feed Control Officials Inc. reports it’s scientific findings to the FDA which then regulates pet food only when necessary to protect the general public, environment or poses a risk to the health of the animal. The AAFCO is a corporation not a government agency but it sets minimum requirements for pet food. It’s members are not required to follow these guidelines. We also get information from university studies on companion animal nutrient requirements but those studies are funded by the pet food industry or government grants. We would generally need to look at veterinary college studies to get information that is not subverted by the requirements of a desired outcome by the entity that is funding the study. Just as we see dietary fads in human nutrition we also see dietary fads in what people feed their animal companions. Each of these dietary fads probably contains some truth as well as some myth or incomplete information. Were are we to turn to find the knowledge we need to make intelligent choices on what to feed our companions? I think that the first place to start is learn more about what the bodies requirements are is to learn more about what nutrients are, where they come from and how they function in the body. In our next blog we will begin to lay the ground work of nutritional elements and where they come from. Once we know the basic chemical composition of nutrients we can look at how these nutrients enter into the body and get delivered to the cells. We will then look at bio-individual needs that are based on breed, environment, work levels, and pathological conditions. Once we know these basic subjects in nutrition we will look at the nutrients that are available to us, their manufacturing processes, quality and economics of nutrition. By the end of this subject we should have a clearer picture of how we can promote health through correct feeding that stays within the budget that we have available to us to feed our companions.

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What is a trigger point? As defined by the Taber’s Medical Dictionary a trigger point or trigger zone is “an area of tissue that is tender when compressed and may give rise to referred pain and tenderness”. An active trigger point is ” A trigger point that is painful when the involved muscle is at rest. Palpation will reproduce the patient’s symptoms”.  Latent trigger points are ” Trigger points that are not symptomatic when the involved muscle is at rest, but produce pain during palpation. Range of motion and strength may also be affected.”

What causes a trigger point? Trigger points are generally caused by over use of the muscle, trauma to the local muscle cells, and or increased muscle cell metabolism combined with reduced metabolic waste uptake by the vascular system or all of the above in combination. Trigger points have also been found to be active on bones and viscera. A more thorough review of myofascial trigger points can be found in the Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy, 2006 article; Myrofascial Trigger Points: An Evidence-Informed Review.

Myofascial trigger points are generally treated by dry needling, stretch and spray,  injection therapy, acupuncture, or manual therapy. While trigger points have been widely studied in humans their has been very little research done on trigger points in animals. One study by Luc Janssens, Trigger Points in 48 Dogs with Myofascial Pain Syndromes identified trigger points in the triceps brachii, infraspinatus, adductorpectineus, peroneus longus, gluteus medius, ileocostorum lumborum, and quadriceps femoris muscles in 38 lame dogs. The treatment consisted of weekly stimulation of the trigger points by needling or injection of a local anesthetic. The author states that excellent results and complete recovery were observed in 60% of the treated dogs.

In a presentation to the World Small Animal Veterinary Association Congress-Vancover 2001, Alan Schoen a well respected veterinary acupuncturist stated that “trigger points may also be related to clinical and subclinical degenerative joint disease, intervertebral disc disease, spondylosis, as well as vertebral misalignments.” Trigger points have also been found to correspond to many acupuncture points.

Identifying trigger points in the dog is done through palpation of the tissues. The tissue that contains the trigger point will be indurated and there will be a taut band of fiber present. The novice might identify this as a knot but muscles can not be tied in knots so a more accurate description would be an area of hardened or swollen tissue that may be hotter then the surrounding tissue. The spot might also seem to pulsate and when touched if it is active it will cause pain in the dog which can be identified by the dog pulling away from the pressure, an increase in alertness as we approach the area and the dog will look back at us intensely, whimpering, growling, and the dog might move away from us at this point or start to lick the area insistently. We should always approach a painful area on the dog with gentleness and caution so we don’t hurt the dog or get bitten. If we start the palpation process by doing long gentle petting strokes from head to tail and off of each limb the dog will let us know the areas that are sensitive by pulling away from the stroke in the areas that are sensitive. Once we have found the areas of sensitivity we can slowly move back to the area and lightly rest our palms over the area without moving for a minute or two so that the dog will understand that we will be sensitive and not hurt them. If the area is hypersensitive we might have to just hover our hand over the area for a while and them very gently lower our palms onto the spot. Linda Tellington-Jones the originator of TTouch sometimes uses a feather to lightly stroke a hypersensitive area. Another way to approach a hypersensitive trigger point is to use cryotherapy to help numb the nerves in the area. We can crush some ice and put it in a sturdy zip lock back and gently rest it on the area after letting the dog sniff the bag. We can use a hot water bottle and put some crushed ice in it with water so that the bag will mold around the area. It is better not to apply the ice directly on the body because the dogs coat will get wet and this will alter the effectiveness of the treatment and in small dogs will cause them to shiver to much even after the treatment has stopped. Leave the ice pack on for 15-20 minutes and check the area a few times during the treatment to see how cold the tissue is. A smaller dog will need less time and a larger thicker coated dog will probably need more time. We should check the area part of the way through the treatment to make sure that the dog is not getting frostbite. We do not want the dog to get a frostbite so if the tissue seems really cold to you, stop the treatment. If the dog is uncooperative in lying still we can wrap the ice bag on with some Ace bandages. After the area has been numbed we can then treat the trigger points. For dogs who are in constant pain from a degenerative joint disease, muscle sprain or strains, or nerve compressions you might consider getting a custom made ice holding pack from CanineIcer.com.

Once we have identified the active trigger points we should warm up the surrounding area with moderate pressure compression so that we can get some local blood circulating. The actual treatment of the trigger point will be done with ischemic compression. We can use our thumb pad, a digital pad, or a massage tool that is made for this work or even a rounded crystal. The technique is similar to shiatsu thumb pressure. We should place our thumb over the trigger point, trap the muscle against the bone and gently sink in to a depth that will not make the dog pull away or wince in pain, wait for three to four seconds and then sink in a little deeper for another few seconds and finally sink in even deeper if the dog is receptive. Sinking in is the operative term here, we don’t push in and push past the pain tolerance level. Pushing is aggressive and insisting on change, sinking in is asking and waiting for change. The tissue under your thumb should slowly open up and allow you to sink in deeper if this technique is done right. If you find yourself pushing or if you come to an end feel and keep pushing you will hurt the dog and this will be counter productive because the dog will start to tighten the muscle to guard against the pain. In working with human trigger points the human will identify the feeling that is produced as good pain, or will describe the pain as radiating to a distant area and will describe a feeling of warmth as we slowly release the pressure and the blood flows back into the tissue. We should release our pressure slowly so we don’t jar the nervous system and then move a half thumbs width to an adjacent area of tissue and repeat the thumb pressure until we have covered all of the area surrounding the trigger point. Don’t over treat the point, this will irritate the muscle tissues to much and cause the dog to be sore for the next few days. If we have used cryotherapy over the trigger point or the dog is on pain medication we will have to be extra cautious because the dog can not feel the area very well and can not give us a signal that we are going to deep.

How often should we do this treatment? We should leave at least two-three days between treatments, we might bruise the tissue to much if we over treat if and the local circulation should be given time to remove any metabolic waste or previously damaged cell material from the interstitial fluid. Also in many instances we have put pressure on the local nerve supply and this will need a little time to recover from the pressure that we have applied.

It is a good idea to stretch the muscles that we have worked on so that the connective tissue can become more elastic and pliable and any cross linkages in the fibrotic tissue can be broken down. They are many other positive benefits of stretching after treating trigger points and I will discuss this in another post on the benefits of stretching for animals. How many sessions does it take until we see progress? This depends on the age, vitality, degree of injury, length of time that the trigger point has been active, and how much the dog is using the muscles involved. Some trigger points can be deactivated with one session and some trigger points may take 4-6 treatments. We would also need to have the DVM examine the dog to see if there are boney misalignments that are contributing to the trigger point formation or an underlying physiological problem. Tracing the causes of the trigger point development is best done by a DVM that is trained in canine orthopedic medicine or a canine physical therapist.